Fundamentholfundamenthol

Pteridophytes

BiologyPlant KingdomFor NEET aspirants

Pteridophytes, the horsetails and ferns, are the first terrestrial plants with vascular tissues, xylem and phloem. These notes on pteridophytes cover the dominant sporophyte with true roots, stems and leaves, and its sporophylls and strobili. They then explain the free-living prothallus, fertilisation in water, homospory, heterospory and the seed habit, and the four classes with their examples. Comparison tables, memory tricks and NEET-style match, statement and sequence questions make revision quick.

On this page1General features2Sporophyte3Gametophyte and fertilisation4Homospory and heterospory5Four classes6Bryophytes vs pteridophytes7Exam essentials8Practice
Key Points at a Glance
  1. ★ Must learn Pteridophytes are the first terrestrial plants to possess vascular tissues: xylem and phloem.
  2. They include horsetails and ferns; used as medicines, soil-binders and ornamentals.
  3. ★ Must learn The main plant body is the sporophyte, with true root, stem and leaves; it is the dominant phase.
  4. Leaves: small microphylls (Selaginella) or large macrophylls (ferns).
  5. Sporangia sit on leaf-like sporophylls; compact sporophylls form strobili (Selaginella, Equisetum).
  6. ★ Must learn Spores grow into the prothallus: a small, multicellular, free-living, mostly photosynthetic, thalloid gametophyte.
  7. Gametophytes need cool, damp, shady places and fertilisation needs water; so pteridophytes are restricted to narrow regions.
  8. ★ Must learn Most are homosporous; Selaginella and Salvinia are heterosporous.
  9. In heterosporous forms the embryo develops inside the retained female gametophyte: a precursor to the seed habit.
  10. ★ Must learn Classes: Psilopsida, Lycopsida, Sphenopsida, Pteropsida.

1. Pteridophytes: General Features

  • The pteridophytes include horsetails and ferns.
  • They are used for medicinal purposes and as soil-binders.
  • They are also frequently grown as ornamentals.
  • ★ Exam imp In evolution, they are the first terrestrial plants to possess vascular tissues: xylem and phloem.
  • They are found in cool, damp, shady places.
  • Some may flourish well in sandy-soil conditions.

★ Very important Pteridophytes are the first terrestrial plants with vascular tissues, xylem and phloem.

Memory Trick

Uses of pteridophytes: MSO, "Medicine, Soil, Ornament": medicinal plants, soil-binders and ornamentals.

Key idea
Pteridophytes are the first vascular land plants; they still prefer cool, damp, shady places.

2. The Sporophyte: Main Plant Body

  • In bryophytes the dominant phase of the life cycle is the gametophyte.
  • ★ Exam imp In pteridophytes the main plant body is a sporophyte.
  • The sporophyte is differentiated into true root, stem and leaves.
  • These organs possess well-differentiated vascular tissues.
  • Leaves may be small, called microphylls, as in Selaginella.
  • Leaves may be large, called macrophylls, as in ferns.
  • The sporophytes bear sporangia.
  • The sporangia are subtended by leaf-like appendages called sporophylls, which bear them.
  • ★ Exam imp In some cases sporophylls form distinct compact structures called strobili or cones.
  • Strobili occur in Selaginella and Equisetum.
  • The sporangia produce spores by meiosis in spore mother cells.
Selaginella, a pteridophyte with small leaves (microphylls) A creeping, branched Selaginella plant with small scale-like leaves on the stem and thin roots hanging down Stem Leaves Roots
Figure 1: Selaginella, a pteridophyte with small leaves (microphylls). The branched stem bears leaves and gives off roots.
Equisetum, a horsetail Equisetum shoots rising from a horizontal rhizome: jointed stems with whorls of thin branches at the nodes, one stem tipped by a cone-like strobilus Branch Strobilus Node Internode Rhizome
Figure 2: Equisetum, a horsetail. The jointed stem shows nodes and internodes, whorls of branches at the nodes, a strobilus at the tip and an underground rhizome.

★ Very important A sporophyll is a leaf-like appendage that bears (subtends) sporangia. A compact group of sporophylls forms a strobilus or cone.

Memory Trick

Micro for Mini Selaginella, Macro for Major ferns: microphylls are small leaves (Selaginella); macrophylls are large leaves (ferns).

Memory Trick

Strobili in pteridophytes: "SE cones": Selaginella and Equisetum.

Key idea
The sporophyte has true root, stem and leaves with vascular tissue, and bears sporangia on sporophylls, sometimes in strobili.

3. The Gametophyte and Fertilisation

  • The spores germinate to give rise to inconspicuous, small but multicellular gametophytes.
  • ★ Exam imp The gametophyte, called the prothallus, is free-living, mostly photosynthetic and thalloid.
  • These gametophytes need cool, damp, shady places to grow.
  • This restricted requirement, and the need for water for fertilisation, limit the spread of living pteridophytes.
  • So living pteridophytes are restricted to narrow geographical regions.
  • The gametophytes bear male and female sex organs: antheridia and archegonia, respectively.
  • Antherozoids are the male gametes released from the antheridia.
  • ★ Exam imp Water is required to transfer antherozoids to the mouth of the archegonium.
  • A male gamete fuses with the egg in the archegonium to form a zygote.
  • The zygote produces a multicellular, well-differentiated sporophyte, which is the dominant phase.

3.1 Steps of the pteridophyte life cycle

  1. Spore mother cells in the sporangia undergo meiosis and form haploid spores.
  2. A spore germinates into the prothallus, the small free-living gametophyte.
  3. The prothallus bears antheridia and archegonia.
  4. Antherozoids swim through water to the mouth of the archegonium.
  5. A male gamete fuses with the egg to form a diploid zygote.
  6. The zygote develops into the large, well-differentiated sporophyte.
Memory Trick

Picture the prothallus as a tiny green thallus, like a small liverwort: flat, free-living and photosynthetic. Yet it is only the short-lived gametophyte of a vascular plant.

Tips and Tricks

Both gametophyte and sporophyte are free-living in pteridophytes. In bryophytes the sporophyte depends on the gametophyte; in gymnosperms the gametophytes depend on the sporophyte.

Key idea
The free-living prothallus needs damp shade and water for fertilisation, which limits where pteridophytes can spread.
Quick Recall: tap to check
Which generation of a pteridophyte is the dominant phase?
The sporophyte, with true root, stem and leaves.
Name the male gametes of pteridophytes.
Antherozoids, released from the antheridia.
Where must antherozoids reach for fertilisation?
The mouth of the archegonium, carried by water.
Why are living pteridophytes restricted to narrow regions?
Their gametophytes need cool, damp, shady places, and fertilisation needs water.

4. Homospory, Heterospory and the Seed Habit

  • ★ Exam imp In the majority of pteridophytes all the spores are of a similar kind. Such plants are homosporous.
  • Genera like Selaginella and Salvinia produce two kinds of spores: macro (large) and micro (small) spores.
  • Such plants are called heterosporous.
  • The megaspores germinate into the female gametophyte.
  • The microspores germinate into the male gametophyte.
  • In heterosporous plants, the female gametophytes are retained on the parent sporophytes for variable periods.
  • The zygote develops into a young embryo within the female gametophyte.
  • ★ Exam imp This event is a precursor to the seed habit, which is considered an important step in evolution.
Salvinia, a heterosporous pteridophyte A floating Salvinia plant with rounded green leaves on the surface and long feathery hanging parts below
Figure 3: Salvinia, a heterosporous pteridophyte. Its leaves float on water, and long root-like hanging parts lie below them.
Homosporous
  • All spores of one kind
  • Found in the majority of pteridophytes
  • Spores give one kind of gametophyte
Heterosporous
  • Two kinds: megaspores (large) and microspores (small)
  • Selaginella, Salvinia
  • Megaspore gives female, microspore gives male gametophyte
  • Female gametophyte retained; embryo forms inside it

★ Very important In heterosporous pteridophytes, the embryo develops within the female gametophyte retained on the parent sporophyte. This is a precursor to the seed habit.

Memory Trick

Heterosporous pteridophytes: "two S plants for two spore sizes": Selaginella and Salvinia.

Key idea
Heterospory, with the female gametophyte retained on the sporophyte, foreshadows the seed habit.

5. Classification of Pteridophytes

  • Pteridophytes are classified into four classes.
ClassExamples
PsilopsidaPsilotum
LycopsidaSelaginella, Lycopodium
SphenopsidaEquisetum (horsetail)
PteropsidaDryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum (ferns)
A fern, a member of Pteropsida A fern plant with large, pinnately divided green fronds
Figure 4: A fern, a member of Pteropsida. Its large divided leaves are macrophylls.
Memory Trick

Classes in order: Please Leave Some Pages: Psilopsida, Lycopsida, Sphenopsida, Pteropsida. Each class name hints at its example: Psilo-Psilotum, Lyco-Lycopodium, Pter-Pteris.

Tips and Tricks

Selaginella and Lycopodium are both in Lycopsida. Equisetum alone is the Sphenopsida example; the three ferns, Dryopteris, Pteris and Adiantum, are Pteropsida.

Key idea
Four classes: Psilopsida (Psilotum), Lycopsida (Selaginella, Lycopodium), Sphenopsida (Equisetum), Pteropsida (ferns).
Quick Recall: figures and labels
Name the class of Equisetum.
Sphenopsida.
Which two pteridophytes are heterosporous?
Selaginella and Salvinia.
In the Equisetum figure, what is the cone at the tip called?
The strobilus. The stem shows nodes and internodes, branches at the nodes, and a rhizome below.
What kind of leaves does Selaginella have?
Small leaves, called microphylls.
What is the gametophyte of a fern called?
The prothallus.

6. Bryophytes and Pteridophytes Compared

FeatureBryophytesPteridophytes
Dominant phaseGametophyte (haploid)Sporophyte (diploid)
Plant bodyThallus-like; no true roots, stem or leavesTrue root, stem and leaves
Vascular tissuesAbsentPresent: xylem and phloem
SporophyteAttached to and nourished by the gametophyteFree-living and well differentiated
GametophyteMain plant bodySmall, free-living prothallus
Sex organsAntheridia and archegoniaAntheridia and archegonia
Water for fertilisationNeededNeeded
ExamplesMarchantia, Funaria, SphagnumSelaginella, Equisetum, ferns, Salvinia
Key idea
Pteridophytes gained vascular tissue and a dominant sporophyte, but like bryophytes still need water for fertilisation.

7. Exam Essentials: Traps, Exceptions, Numbers and Pairs

NEET Focus

Points NEET builds statements and match lists from:

  • The first vascular land plants are the pteridophytes, not the bryophytes.
  • The dominant phase is the sporophyte; the prothallus is the gametophyte.
  • Strobili occur in Selaginella and Equisetum.
  • Heterospory: Selaginella and Salvinia. Most pteridophytes are homosporous.
  • Selaginella has microphylls; ferns have macrophylls.
  • Spores are formed by meiosis in spore mother cells inside sporangia.

Exceptions

  • Pteridophytes have vascular tissues, yet they still need water for fertilisation.
  • Most grow in cool, damp, shady places, but some flourish in sandy soil.
  • Only a few genera, such as Selaginella and Salvinia, are heterosporous; the majority are homosporous.
  • Sporophylls form strobili only in some cases.
  • The female gametophyte is retained on the sporophyte only in heterosporous forms.
  • The prothallus is mostly, not always, photosynthetic.

Numbers to Remember

  • 4 classes of pteridophytes.
  • 2 kinds of spores in heterosporous forms: megaspores and microspores.
  • 2 kinds of leaves: microphylls and macrophylls.
  • 2 vascular tissues: xylem and phloem.

Examples to Remember

Group or featureExamples
PsilopsidaPsilotum
LycopsidaSelaginella, Lycopodium
SphenopsidaEquisetum
PteropsidaDryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum
HeterosporousSelaginella, Salvinia
Strobili presentSelaginella, Equisetum
Microphylls / macrophyllsSelaginella / ferns

Pairs to Match

ItemMatches with
PsilotumPsilopsida
LycopodiumLycopsida
EquisetumSphenopsida; strobilus; horsetail
AdiantumPteropsida
SelaginellaMicrophylls; heterosporous
SalviniaHeterosporous
FernsMacrophylls
SporophyllLeaf-like appendage bearing sporangia
StrobilusCompact group of sporophylls (cone)
ProthallusFree-living thalloid gametophyte
MegasporeGives the female gametophyte
MicrosporeGives the male gametophyte
Spore mother cellMeiosis gives spores

8. Quick Revision

  • Pteridophytes: horsetails and ferns; medicinal, soil-binders, ornamentals.
  • First terrestrial plants with vascular tissues, xylem and phloem.
  • Grow in cool, damp, shady places; some in sandy soil.
  • Main plant body: sporophyte with true root, stem and leaves (dominant phase).
  • Microphylls in Selaginella; macrophylls in ferns.
  • Sporangia on sporophylls; strobili in Selaginella and Equisetum.
  • Spores by meiosis in spore mother cells; they form the prothallus.
  • Prothallus: small, multicellular, free-living, mostly photosynthetic, thalloid gametophyte.
  • Water carries antherozoids to the archegonium; spread limited to narrow regions.
  • Most are homosporous; Selaginella and Salvinia are heterosporous.
  • Megaspores give female, microspores give male gametophytes.
  • Embryo within retained female gametophyte: precursor to the seed habit.
  • Classes: Psilopsida, Lycopsida, Sphenopsida, Pteropsida.

9. Solved Examples

Solved Example 1
Match List I (class) with List II (example).
List IList II
A. PsilopsidaI. Equisetum
B. LycopsidaII. Adiantum
C. SphenopsidaIII. Psilotum
D. PteropsidaIV. Lycopodium
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(1) A-IV, B-III, C-I, D-II
(2) A-III, B-IV, C-I, D-II
(3) A-III, B-I, C-IV, D-II
(4) A-I, B-IV, C-III, D-II
Solution:

Answer: (2). Psilotum is in Psilopsida (III), Lycopodium in Lycopsida (IV), Equisetum in Sphenopsida (I) and Adiantum in Pteropsida (II).

Solved Example 2
Read the following statements about pteridophytes.
A. They are the first terrestrial plants with xylem and phloem.
B. The main plant body is a gametophyte.
C. Sporophylls form strobili in Selaginella and Equisetum.
D. Fertilisation does not need water.
E. Salvinia is heterosporous.
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(1) A, C, D and E only
(2) A, B and C only
(3) B, D and E only
(4) A, C and E only
Solution:

Answer: (4). B is wrong: the main plant body is the sporophyte. D is wrong: water is needed to carry antherozoids to the archegonium.

Solved Example 3
Arrange the events of a fern life cycle in the correct sequence.
A. Prothallus bears antheridia and archegonia
B. Meiosis in spore mother cells
C. Zygote develops into the sporophyte
D. Antherozoids reach the archegonium through water
E. Spore germinates
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(1) B, A, E, D, C
(2) E, B, A, D, C
(3) B, E, A, D, C
(4) B, E, D, A, C
Solution:

Answer: (3). Meiosis forms spores (B), a spore germinates (E) into the prothallus bearing sex organs (A), antherozoids swim to the archegonium (D), and the zygote grows into the sporophyte (C).

Solved Example 4
The development of the embryo within the female gametophyte retained on the sporophyte, seen in some pteridophytes, is important because it:
(1) allows fertilisation without water
(2) is a precursor to the seed habit
(3) makes the gametophyte dominant
(4) produces fruits
Solution:

Answer: (2). Retention of the female gametophyte and development of the embryo inside it foreshadow the seed habit, an important step in evolution.

Solved Example 5
Which of the following is NOT correct about the prothallus?
(1) It is small, inconspicuous and multicellular.
(2) It is free-living and mostly photosynthetic.
(3) It bears sporangia on sporophylls.
(4) It needs cool, damp, shady places to grow.
Solution:

Answer: (3). Sporangia and sporophylls are borne by the sporophyte. The prothallus bears antheridia and archegonia.

Solved Example 6
Given below are two statements:
Statement I: In pteridophytes the dominant phase is the sporophyte, as in bryophytes.
Statement II: Megaspores of heterosporous pteridophytes give rise to female gametophytes.
In the light of the above statements, choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(1) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct
(2) Both Statement I and Statement II are incorrect
(3) Statement I is correct but Statement II is incorrect
(4) Statement I is incorrect but Statement II is correct
Solution:

Answer: (4). Statement I is wrong: in bryophytes the gametophyte is dominant. Statement II is correct.

10. Practice Questions

Practice Questions
  1. Match List I with List II.
    List IList II
    A. MicrophyllsI. Ferns
    B. MacrophyllsII. Compact group of sporophylls
    C. StrobilusIII. Free-living gametophyte
    D. ProthallusIV. Selaginella
    Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
    (1) A-IV, B-I, C-III, D-II
    (2) A-I, B-IV, C-II, D-III
    (3) A-IV, B-II, C-I, D-III
    (4) A-IV, B-I, C-II, D-IIIAnswer: (4). Microphylls in Selaginella (IV), macrophylls in ferns (I), strobilus is a compact group of sporophylls (II), prothallus is the gametophyte (III).
  2. Which statements about heterosporous pteridophytes are correct?
    A. They produce megaspores and microspores.
    B. Microspores give rise to female gametophytes.
    C. The female gametophyte is retained on the parent sporophyte for variable periods.
    D. Selaginella and Salvinia are examples.
    Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
    (1) A, B and C only
    (2) A, C and D only
    (3) B, C and D only
    (4) A and D onlyAnswer: (2). B is wrong: microspores give male gametophytes; megaspores give female gametophytes.
  3. Arrange the following in the order in which they appear, from sporophyte to new sporophyte.
    A. Prothallus
    B. Spore
    C. Zygote
    D. Sporangium
    Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
    (1) D, B, A, C
    (2) B, D, A, C
    (3) D, A, B, C
    (4) A, D, B, CAnswer: (1). Sporangium (D), spore (B), prothallus (A), zygote (C).
  4. Which of the following is NOT a reason for the limited spread of living pteridophytes?
    (1) The gametophyte needs cool, damp, shady places
    (2) Water is needed for fertilisation
    (3) They lack vascular tissues
    (4) The gametophyte is small and has a restricted requirementAnswer: (3). Pteridophytes do possess vascular tissues; the gametophyte's needs and water for fertilisation limit their spread.
  5. Given below are two statements:
    Statement I: Pteridophytes are used as soil-binders and as ornamentals.
    Statement II: Lycopodium belongs to the class Sphenopsida.
    In the light of the above statements, choose the correct answer from the options given below:
    (1) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct
    (2) Both Statement I and Statement II are incorrect
    (3) Statement I is correct but Statement II is incorrect
    (4) Statement I is incorrect but Statement II is correctAnswer: (3). Lycopodium belongs to Lycopsida; Equisetum is the Sphenopsida example.
  6. What is heterospory? Briefly comment on its significance. Give two examples.Answer: Heterospory is the production of two kinds of spores, large megaspores and small microspores. Megaspores form female and microspores male gametophytes. The female gametophyte is retained on the sporophyte and the embryo develops inside it, a precursor to the seed habit. Examples: Selaginella, Salvinia.
  7. Explain sporophyll with an example.Answer: A sporophyll is a leaf-like appendage that bears (subtends) sporangia. In Selaginella and Equisetum sporophylls form compact strobili; in gymnosperms they form cones.
  8. Differentiate between homosporous and heterosporous pteridophytes.Answer: Homosporous: one kind of spore; found in the majority of pteridophytes. Heterosporous: two kinds, megaspores and microspores, giving female and male gametophytes; female gametophyte retained on the sporophyte; Selaginella, Salvinia.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

Watch out
  • Calling bryophytes the first vascular plants. Pteridophytes are the first terrestrial plants with xylem and phloem.
  • Calling the prothallus a sporophyte. It is the free-living gametophyte.
  • Thinking that vascular tissue frees pteridophytes from water. Antherozoids still need water to reach the archegonium.
  • Calling all pteridophytes heterosporous. The majority are homosporous; Selaginella and Salvinia are heterosporous.
  • Swapping the gametophytes: megaspores give female and microspores give male gametophytes.
  • Placing Lycopodium in Sphenopsida. It belongs to Lycopsida with Selaginella; Equisetum is Sphenopsida.
  • Giving ferns microphylls. Ferns have large macrophylls; Selaginella has microphylls.
  • Saying sporangia are on the prothallus. Sporangia are on the sporophyte, borne by sporophylls.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why are pteridophytes called the first vascular plants?

Pteridophytes are the first terrestrial plants in evolution to possess vascular tissues, xylem and phloem. Their sporophyte is differentiated into true root, stem and leaves, and these organs contain well-differentiated vascular tissues. Bryophytes lack such tissues and true organs. This is why the pteridophyte sporophyte can grow larger and become the dominant phase.

What is a prothallus?

The prothallus is the gametophyte of pteridophytes. It develops from a spore and is small, inconspicuous, multicellular, free-living, mostly photosynthetic and thalloid. It needs cool, damp, shady places to grow and bears antheridia and archegonia, the male and female sex organs.

Why do pteridophytes need water for fertilisation?

The male gametes, called antherozoids, are released from the antheridia and must reach the mouth of the archegonium. They are transferred through water. This need for water, along with the gametophyte's need for cool, damp, shady places, restricts living pteridophytes to narrow geographical regions.

What is the difference between homosporous and heterosporous pteridophytes?

Homosporous pteridophytes produce only one kind of spore; most pteridophytes are like this. Heterosporous ones, such as Selaginella and Salvinia, produce large megaspores and small microspores. Megaspores give female gametophytes and microspores give male gametophytes. In these plants the female gametophyte stays on the parent sporophyte for some time.

How is heterospory related to the seed habit?

In heterosporous pteridophytes the female gametophyte is retained on the parent sporophyte for variable periods. The zygote develops into a young embryo within this female gametophyte. This event is a precursor to the seed habit, which is considered an important step in evolution.

What are sporophylls and strobili?

Sporophylls are leaf-like appendages that bear sporangia on the pteridophyte sporophyte. In some plants the sporophylls are grouped into distinct, compact structures called strobili or cones. Selaginella and Equisetum are examples of pteridophytes with strobili. Each sporangium produces spores by meiosis in its spore mother cells.

What are the four classes of pteridophytes?

Pteridophytes are classified into Psilopsida (Psilotum), Lycopsida (Selaginella and Lycopodium), Sphenopsida (Equisetum) and Pteropsida (Dryopteris, Pteris and Adiantum). The mnemonic Please Leave Some Pages gives the four classes in order. Note that Selaginella and Lycopodium share the same class.

Which pteridophyte facts are asked most in NEET?

Pteridophytes are the first vascular land plants. The sporophyte is dominant, and the prothallus is the gametophyte. Water is needed for fertilisation. Selaginella and Salvinia are heterosporous. Also learn the four classes with their examples, since match-list questions often pair a genus with its class.

Previous year questions on Pteridophytes

3 questions from past papers, each with a step-by-step solution.

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